Csányi Marietta et al. (szerk.): Tisicum - A Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Megyei Múzeumok Évkönyve 25. (Szolnok, 2016)

Közel-Kelet régészete - Ftaimi Tifanny: War and Conflict in Prehistoric Mesopotamia

TISICUM XXV. - KÖZEL-KELET RÉGÉSZETE

graves, but also in burial goods.34 Also in Tell Abada in northern Iraq, there is a distinctive building, this structure is building A, which is the largest one in the settlement and has 29 exterior buttresses with large buttresses at the corner. This structure diverges from the other houses not only in the artifacts such as vessels, mace heads and tokens which were found in this building, but also in the architectural patterns. These differences suggest that this economic split which appeared in the three occupation phases have been shifted in hereditary form to several generations.35 Another possible evidence for social changes came from Tell Magzalia, one house in Level 2 is about 50 square meter, but the same house in Level 4 is about 100 sq.m. This large change in the architectural patterns proposes a possible existence of social hierarchy.36

What were the reasons and influences which led to social and ideological transformation that led to conflict and warfare?

Many different causes could lead to organizational changes. These changes may appear in different forms. Some societies required a leader to be able to reach some goals or needs. Besides, many conditions at that time created reasons for these transformations to occur among the higher ranking and to create competitions between individuals or groups as well.

There are many theories which attribute the changes to social, economical or religious reasons. For Weber, ideas and values play a bigger role on the social changes than economic.37 Conversely, Marx considered that economy had more impact than human ideas and values.38 On the other hand, Merton sees that religion is very important to keep the society together like a system and they need a person who has a power to lead this society.39 Consequently, we should conduct more research concerning social transformations to be able to know more about the sources of warfare appearance.

It is important to note that we have no evidence for warfare for the earlier 90 percent of the Ubaid period until the end of the fifth millennium, before the transition to state organization in the Uruk period.40

4.2 Captive scenes and conflict depictions from the Uruk Period (3800-3100/2900 B.C)

The term „Uruk” refers to three things: the ancient city which is called in present days Warka, a time period, and a material culture. According to periodization, the time period is 3900-3100/2900 BC, which existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age, following the Ubaid period till the Jamdet Nasr Period (Late Uruk period). The term Uruk period was named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this city was famous as the capital city of Gilgamesh, hero of the epic of Gilgamesh. The site located in the southern region of Sumer on an ancient branch of the River Euphrates in Iraq.

The world's earliest known urbanized state societies had been developed in southern Mesopotamia during the Uruk period. Uruk was settled in the Ubaid and Uruk period, the site’s size was 250 ha and had a population of about 10.000 to 50.000.41 The Uruk period shows development

34 ROTHMAN, Mitchell S. 2002.147.

35 STEIN, Gil 1994.38.; KUBBA, Shamil A.A. 1987.127.

36 KUBBA, Shamil A.A. 1987.83.

37 COLLINS, Paul 2000.52.

38 COLLINS, Paul 2000.8.

39 COLLINS, Paul 2000.9.

40 STEIN, Gil 1994.49.

41 STEIN, Gil 1999.86.

of several cultural factors such as territorial expansion and urbanization with settlement hierarchy.42

In addition to Uruk site in this period, there are Tell Abu Salabikh, Eridu, Tell al-Uqair, Ur in the southern plain. Plabuba Kabira-Siid/Tell Qannas, Jebel Aruda, Tell Sheikh Hasan, Hacinebi Tepe on the Middle Euphrates. Hassek Höyük and Arslan Tepe on the Upper Euphrates. Tell Brak on the Khabur river. Also, Susa, Choga Mish and Godin Tepe in Iran.43 Other features of the Uruk period are the beveled-rim-bowls, cylinder seals, the fast pottery’s wheel, writing, and tokens.44 Various representations of violence were depicted on the Uruk cylinder seals, conflict activities and taking of captives which is called captive scenes. These representations function as evidence of conflict and violence in this period.

The first captives’ scene45 shows a captive on the ground with two standing tormentors, one of them holds a stick in his hand and beats the captive whose hands are tied to the back. To the right we see the third standing person with a long stick in his hands, in front of him there are two captives on their knees with bended back and their hands are tied with a rope to the back. It is important to mention that all captives are naked. The whole scene made in front of the ruler, he is the only one who wears a knee-length skirt with a belt and a diadem on his head. In contrast to the other people in the depiction, he has complete hair and beard. He holds a long rod in contrast to another sealing on which the ruler holds a spear.

This sealing46 is like the previous sealing. Behind the ruler there is one standing tormentor holding a stick with a hole in his hand and beats two captives, one of them bended forward and his hands are tied to the back. The knees of the captive above the other are tied to the neck with a rope. This depiction of the three people are repeated. The captives are naked as well. The ruler has been depicted like a victor/triumphant and not like a warrior, because he holds the spear downward. In contrast with the sealing (Fig.8) the ruler holds a long stick and not a spear.47 The captives’ scene is repeated in this sealing48 as well. One tormentor stands and holds a thick stick/club in his left hand. In front of the other standing tormentor is another one who stretches his arms to the captive. The captive’s hands are tied to the back and his knees are tied with a rope. Under that captive lies another one with hands tied forwards, who is beaten by one tormentor. To his right, to him, two bound captives are seen. Next to this depiction, one bended tormentor can be seen who beats a captive with a club. Under them, a captive lies on his back and his hands are tied to his knees.

The first depiction in the sealing is repeated at the end. All of them are naked and the depiction of the ruler is absent here, compared with the first and the second sealing.

The depictions on two sealings are the same, with some differences. In the sealing49 the first tormentor’s hand is empty, but in previous one he holds a club. The first captive at the top has just one leg, in the other sealing he has two legs. The third tormentor fetters the captive’s hands

42 STEIN, Gil 1999.; ALGAZE, Guillermo 1993.; COLLINS, Paul 2000.

43 ALGAZE, Guillermo 1993.; COLLINS, Paul 2000.; STEIN, Gil 1999.93.

44 STEIN, Gil 1999.93.

45 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999. Tafel 12. Nr. 3. A-E.

46 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999. Tafel 17. Nr. 4. A-L.

47 BRAUN-HOLZINGER, Eva A. 2007.12.

48 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999. Tafel 20. Nr. 5. A-G.

49 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999. Tafel 2. Nr. 6. A-E.

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