Csányi Marietta et al. (szerk.): Tisicum - A Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Megyei Múzeumok Évkönyve 25. (Szolnok, 2016)

Közel-Kelet régészete - Ftaimi Tifanny: War and Conflict in Prehistoric Mesopotamia

FTAIMI, TIFFANY: WAR AND CONFLICT IN PREHISTORIC MESOPOTAMIA

under his knees. Two fettered captives are next to him. The standing person above also fetters one captive’s hand to the back. On the ground lies another person with bound arms to the knees. The sequel of the sealing depicted with two tormentors and captives. One of the tormentors has no weapon or tool in his hand, in comparison with the previous sealing. Next to him there is a standing person and he catches the fettered captive’s leg. A person lies on the ground with also tied hands and legs.

Sealing,50 the captives’ scene repeated in this sealing also. All of the people are naked. Two tormentors are standing and catching one captive who is on his knees with stretched arms. Above lies a captive on his knees and elbows. Next to the three people, one captive is sitting and his hands are fettered to the back or to the front. Another captive lies on the ground, his right leg fixed with a thick stick/staff and his hands are tied. In front of him a sitter with stretched arms is recognizable. Below there is another captive on his knees with hands tied to the back. The last group consists of one standing tormentor and two captives. The two objects on the ground are quivers, both are corded to put them on the shoulders.51 Compared with other sealings, the depiction of the ruler is absent here.

Sealing52 shows another captive scene or bound humans. This sealing consists of two lines. The upper line defines a group of birds flying above the head of the captives. The lower line comprises four men and above each of their heads there is a bird to protect the captive.53 The first man on the left side is sitting on his knees, his hands tied to the back and he is the only one who wears a skirt with a belt. The three following men are all naked. Between the second, third, and fourth man there are two jars. This sealing dated to the late Uruk period (Uruk IVa).54 Sealing,55 this sealing was found in Susa, dated to Susa 18/17 or Late Uruk period.56 The priest king shown here is involved in conflict. He is holding a big bow and targeting arrows at three enemies. One of them is shot with an arrow from back. The other opponent is shown falling off the roof of a building which has six horns, three on each side. The ruler is depicted with knee-length skirt, with long hair and beard, but the opponents are naked. The priest king/archer depictions are known from other sealings from Choga Mish,57 which dated to the Early Uruk period. This war man/king had been obviously influenced by the Elamites depiction which was very common in Mesopotamia.58 This means that the bow was the attribute of a ruler, either with captives or opponents as it appeared in such sealings.

Sealing59 was found in Susa, dated to the Middle Uruk period or Susa 22/21.60 The depiction of the sealing is one man who holds a bow. Another man’s back is also recognizable. Sealings,61 a group of archers can be seen. The men holding bows in their hands are naked in sealing c,

50 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999. Tafel 26. Nr. 9. A-H.

51 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.24.

52 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999. 76. Abb. 64. A-D.

53 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.54.

54 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.76.

55 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.130. Abb. 102.

56 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.130.

57 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.141. Abb. 122. f„ g.

58 BRAUN-HOLZINGER, Eva A. 2007.172.

59 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.138. Abb. 118. a.

60 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.138.

61 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.138. Abb. 118. b., c.

but in sealing b. one person with knee-length skirt is observable. Both sealings were found in Susa and are dated to Susa 20/19 or Late Uruk period.62 Sealing,63 also a group of archers had been depicted, four men are holding bows and arrows in their hands. This sealing was found in Choga Mish, which is dated to Susa 18 64 or Late Uruk period.

Sealing,65 two captives on their knees are can be seen, the sealing was found in Susa as well, dated to Late Uruk period or Susa 20/19.66 Sealings,67 were found in Choga Mish. Sealing e shows a caning scene. Two captives are sitting on their knees, one of them is beaten with a stick from the back by the standing naked tormentor. The sealing is dated to the Late Uruk period or Susa 20/19.

The hands of the captives on the sealing f, in contrast to the captives on the other sealings, are not bound at all. With arms reaching out to the ruler, they are sitting on the ground without any bands. The state of their bodies is humbled and in a begging position. Sealing g, this sealing consists of two lanes as well. Four captives, two in each lane. They are sitting on the ground with tied hands to the front or to the back.

A captive scene was also found in Habuba.68 The captives are sitting on their knees. Their hands are tied with a rope to the back. The ruler attendant is depicted here as well, but he is depicted much bigger than the captives. This sealing dated to the late Uruk period or Susa 18.69 The weapons/objects which were used with the captives or which are depicted on the sealings are few, such as staff or stick, that could be long or with a hole. This object is depicted in the tormentors’ hands and utilized to hit the captive with it. The long stick is depicted in the ruler’s hand as well. Besides, on one sealing a club appears in the tormentors’ hands in order to torment the prisoners.

Another object which used with the captives is the rope to tie their hands together or to knees and necks. One weapon appears only in the hand of the ruler on one sealing as a symbol of victory and not for warfare purpose. In addition to the spear in the hand of the ruler, the bow was very common as a symbol of the ruler, which is shown in his hand with an arrow. Arrows are shown on other sealings as well and quivers are shown just on one sealing situated on the ground.

The captives’ scenes were very common in Uruk V, but before in the Uruk IV b and after it are rare to appear.70 From these sealings it may be concluded that the Uruk period, especially the Late Uruk period exposed to changes and transformations in the society. These changes happened not only at the site of Uruk, but rather in many other sites such as Susa, Choga Mish and Habuba as I mentioned before. The indicators of transformations occurred in the same time in the Uruk period - not before, in the Ubaid period - and in the same way, appearing through captives’ scenes and with a person, who had more power than the other individuals. The captives originally be from another society/site or from local people. Why did the ruler have power in this period and from where did he get this privilege? The depiction of the ruler started in the Uruk

62 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.138.

63 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.138. Abb. 118. d.

64 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.138.

65 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.141. Abb. 122. d.

66 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.141.

67 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.141. Abb. 122. e„ f., g.

68 See BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.141. Abb. 122. h.

69 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.141.

70 BOEHMER, Rainer Michael 1999.54.

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