Dr. Szabó Lajos: A magyar ifjúság testi nevelésének története (A Sportmúzeum Kincsei 5. Budapest, 2004)

A német és a svéd torna az iskolai testnevelés alapja a XIX. század első felében

IT WAS FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAHN (1778-1852) who became the father ("Turnvater") of German gymnastics. His activity was highly influenced not only by the philantropists (first of all by Guth-Muths), but by the philosophers of his age (e.g. Johann Gottlieb Fichte). During the Napoleonic Wars when the German military troops were regularly defeated, he was looking for the reason of it. Finally he concluded that the fitting for action of the military units marching at command can be increased and improved by properly composed marching-, array- and implement exercises. He worked out a new exercise system with his colleagues taking into consideration the above mentioned, in which the power-, endurance- and discipline improving exercises were in majority in relation to their physiological effects. Being an excellent organizer his ideas soon became well-known in the German principalities. In 1811 he set up an outdoor exercise-field (Turnplatz) on a meadow named Hasenheide, near Berlin, which very quickly became a favourable meeting point for the ever increasing number of followers and students. This example was followed by several other German towns. In 1813, in the Battle of Nations near Leipzig, Jahn successfully put his battalion of about 2000 soldiers into action. In 1816 the first German gymnastic society was founded in Hamburg. Jahn and his gymnasts, who were recruited mainly from the lower classes demanding social changes, became disappointed after the Napoleonic Wars (Burschenschaft movement) as the Prussian government followed the restoration policy of the Holy League. As an effect of it the government forbade the outdoor exercises in 1819. (Gymnastic Blockade between 1820-1842) Outdoor gymnatics became indoor gymnastics fitting the motion elements and apparatus use to it. This is the time when the later well-known German apparatuses (horizontal-, parallel bars, rings, pommel horse) were formed. Jahn's exercise-system for schools was further developed by the Swiss Adolf Spiess (1810-1858) and by the German Ernst Eiselen (1792-1846). A special branch of gymnastics - considering human physiology - was founded by the Swedish Peer Henrik Ling (1792-1846) and his son Hjalmar Ling (1799-1881) in the North-European countries. They worked out their special system, the "Swedish Gymnastics" while considering the experiences of the Indian and Chinese health gymnastics and the modern health-, anatomical- and physiological knowledge of their age. The aim was to improve the body proportionally, to teach the right body posture and to prevent and overcome the harmful effects of illnesses. P. H. Ling did not even use apparatuses. They distinguished 4 types of exercises: medical, military, educational and aesthetic ones. The so called Swedish apparatuses (vaulting box, bench, wall bars) were developed by his son H. Ling. Both Jahn and his followers and the Lings (father and son) - following the philanthropists -, were aiming at fitting PE. into the educational system of the schools with their works. They have worked out the first syllabuses divided into units (in which the elements worked out by themselves were dominating of course). But games, certain elements of track and field and swimming also played their parts in it. Their ambitions were extended to make girls do exercises, and to train specialists (teacher training),