Mária T. Biró: The Bone Objects of the Roman Collection. (Catalogi Musei Nationalis Hungarici. Seria Archeologica 2; Budapest, 1994)

INTRODUCTION - 3. Theoretical aspects of determining bone carving workshops

Still, the cheapness of bone is relative: whether the appearance of the masses of bone objects indicates richness or poverty it depends what territorial region we are speaking of. A striking result of the research of Germania was that bone objects were the characteristic grave furniture at burials where other provincial products were also found. Moreover, it could be concluded that bone objects were preferred just by well-to-do Romanized layers or those sympathizing with Rome. Meaning, that the preference for bone articles was not the sign of poverty in Germania, on the contrary, that of wealth. Bone objects were in the Barbaricum the accessories of well-to-do people or individuals belonging to higher social layers. In the provinces they were the accessories of the middle classes, of people of modest social status being the only luxury article they could afford. There were probably certain religious, folk beliefs or more simply: superstitions attached to objects made of bone. There is always some connection between the function of objects ant the representations on them. On knife handles symbols of physical strength, on pins and jars Venus, Cupido, etc. were represented. Among the representations there are apotropaic, chthonic and fertility symbols. Moreover, if we had a better knowledge of their religious beliefs we could say that there are without exception such symbols on the representations. I am inclined to think that the art of this culture similarly to Migration Period or Early Middle Ages is never self-contained. Bone as a raw material had its own characteristic "cult". The metaphysics of materials is still known in the protecting or malign force of precious stones. There were a number of customs and beliefs in the Empire built on the metaphysics of bone; some of them can be reconstructed from archaeological finds: bone objects played a role especially in the wear and grave furniture of children and to a certain degree of women. The distinction attached to bone as a material can be best documented with bracelets. Bone bracelets are always found in the left arm while those made of bronze on the right. There were never placed on one arm of the dead bone and bronze bracelets together.

20 Humpbacked combs were always placed in the grave of children and women near the two legs or above them. Lastly, mention should be made of the ethnic and national features of the objects. On bone objects from Pannónia three well definable ethnic impacts can be traced: I. The tradition and form treasure of GraecoRoman Mediterranean culture was transmitted from the 6th century B. C. on without interruption on generations following one another. For nearly a thousand years bone pins with bird or animal figure, with pine cones, spindles and distaffs are produced without any change in the form. The same goddess or hero were carved and the symbols of the same transcendental and chthonic world concept are represented in the 5th century A. D. in the shadow of German destruction than the ones created a thousand years ago on the votive relics of Greek sanctuaries. II. The other ethnic impact on Roman Empire and especially on our Province has come from the East. With the appearance of Eastern auxiliaries there were a number of soldiers' weapons and wear accessories introduced to the Empire which had never been used before. Such relics are the bone reflex bow stiffeners, the bone belt loops, etc. This Eastern impact was connected to the presence of soldiers from the East and made its appearance especially along the limes. The frequency of such accessories is much bigger in certain provinces especially in the West than it should be justified after the number of soldiers enlisted from the East. It is by no means impossible that these accessories of soldiers' weapons and wear were taken over by troops other than of Eastern origin. III. The impact of German and Hunnic settlers on provincial bone processing industry in Pannónia had always presented a major problem. There was a period when almost all irregular phenomena were taken for the legacy of Germans settled in the province. For a long time with the combs of Marosszentanna-type just the presence of Germans was thought to be proved. Today we are rather of the opinion that the way of articles was just the opposite. It is more likely that they were Roman merchants who delivered goods to the Barbaricum. There are more and more bone combs coming to light in this territory, still untouched by German peoples, suggesting that triangle, humpbacked and even Marosszentanna-type combs were Roman provincial products. In deciding these questions stress ought to have been placed on the structural features of combs instead of on decorative elements. Because it is much more difficult to reproduce a structure consisting of five parts, worked on lathe, on a special tool,