Alba Regia. Annales Musei Stephani Regis. – Alba Regia. Az István Király Múzeum Évkönyve. 25. – Szent István Király Múzeum közleményei: C sorozat (1995)

Tanulmányok – Abhandlungen - Christie, N.: The Survival of Roman Settlement alog the Middle Danube: Pannonia from The tenth Century A. D. p. 303–319. t. XX–XXIII.

of cult items denoting a Christian population. Problematic of course is the dating of such objects and their lack of context: in the case of liturgical items such as bowls, lamps or reliquaries, or decorated stonework such as pilasters and ambos, only rarely can they be securely linked with stable settlements (e.g. pilasters from Gorsium datable to с 500); in other instances isolated stonework may denote rural churches (e.g. ambo panel from Dörgicse), while stray vessel finds could signify booty from robbed chapels not necessarily on Pannonian soil (cf. Tóth 1974a; 1976a; 1980; Thomas 1982, 289-291; 1987, 291-294). A maintenance of churches is witnessed at sites like Fenékpuszta, Gorsium and Sopianae, while gravefinds at Fenékpuszta help demonstrate Christian and Roman groups persisting at least into the 6th century (Barkóczi 1968, 301-303). Significant in this connection is the adherence of the Ostrogoths (and perhaps Suebi) to Arianism. Since in Ostrogothic Italy there was no persecution of Orthodox Catholics we can suggest a like tolerance in Pannónia, which, as noted, had once formed an Arian stronghold; this may then have contributed to church survival (cf. Thomas 1987, 288). At the same time this allows for Germans as wearers of items bearing Christian symbols (Tóth 1980, 97). Actual Hunnic period finds include the distinctive cauldrons, examples of which have come from or near the Roman sites of Intercisa, Törtei, Heténypuszta and Várpalota. Wealthy tombs are known near Sopianae, Szekszárd, Keszthely, Pannonhalma (near Arrabona), Bátaszék (near Ad Statuas), Aquincum and Lébény, all equipped with swords, horse fittings and fine dress items. Bona argues from these finds for a Hunnic reuse of many fortified centres, with burials generally sited on hills close by (1982, 186-194; 1987, 117-119). But such occupation is not directly attested by archaeology nor by the written sources. Indeed Attila chose the Central Hungarian Plain, an open non-urbanised expanse, as the Hunnic heartland: fringe territories such as Pannónia were probably given over to allied tribes such as the Alans, Goths, Heruls and Sciri. These tribes adopted Hunnic dress and traits and likewise displayed their wealth in rich tombs. Artificial skull deformation is often viewed as a distinguishing mark of the Hunnic confederacy, although the tradition was certainly maintained after the Hunnic demise: indeed, 5th century Pannónia features many examples, very few of which relate to Mongolid stock. For example, at the Mőzs cemetery (noted above in connection with federate settlement after 380), 11 of the 28 inhumed had deformed skulls, the bulk of which appaer to stem from the third generation of burial here, beginning c. 430 and marked also by finds such as crescent earrings, plate and chip-carved brooches (Salamon-Lengyel 1980). Salamon and Barkóczi (1978-79, 78-81) have defined such graves as of 'Szabadbattyán' type, named after the cemetery lying 5km NW of Gorsium: here Roman material was lacking, and finds were predominantly of Eastern, Germanic character. In addition to elements present at Mözs, Szabadbattyán yielded eastern, nomadic mirrors. These occur as stray finds at sites like Carnuntum, Brigetio and Burgenae, but also from graves at Pilismarót. Szekszárd and Környe; at Untersiebenbrunn the mirror was associated with grasshopper brooches which are also known at Aquincum, Intercisa and Gorsium. Elsewhere, Szabadbattyán finds seemingly mark a continuity of late Roman cemeteries (Barkóczi-Salamon 1984, 181-183). This may suggest the incorporation of former federate groups into the Hunnic fold; if their role had long been to occupy and defend Roman defences then it can easily be argued that this role was maintained under Hunnic overlordship. How extensive such a pattern was clearly remains to be determined by new finds. The dissolution of the Hunnic empire in 454-455 saw the emergence of a number of barbarian kingdoms along the Middle Danube, whose territorial confines cannot be firmly fixed given that the various tribes for long preserved Hunnic style attributes. However, the overall zones of influence are broadly understood and finds are accorded ethnic appurtenance largely on the basis of location. In the period to 472 Ostrogothic power was dominant in former Pannónia, but was centred primarily on Pannónia Secunda, with lake Balaton perhaps their northern border; beyond this Heruls may have controlled the NW region, while NE Pannónia appears a virtual no men's land, with the Suebic kingdom largely set over the Danube (fig.3) (Kiss 1981, 168-170). After 473 when the Ostrogoths moved eastwards and subsequently in 489 westwards to Italy, Suebi and Heruls may have extended their control into Transdanubia, but the bulk of Pannónia apparently lacked any real guiding power. The Gepids did, however, establish a foothold by occupying the city and territory of Sirmium. As noted, the archaeology of the whole period up to 526 is restricted and confused. In the case of the Ostrogoths it is argued - though without any material support - that palaces existed in the fortified centres of Fenékpuszta, Sopianae and Sirmium (Kiss 1981, 170; Bona 1987, 119-120; Müller 1987, 270-271. Historical summary: WOLFRAM 1988, 258-268). Certainly our sources, notably Jordanes, still refer to towns like Sirmium and Bassiana but give no details as to their physical well-being; the Vita Severini (ch.II) meanwhile mentions an earthquake in 456 devastating Savaria. From the late 5th century Suebic weapon graves and rich female burials begin to occur in N and E Pannónia (e.g. Felpéc, Brigetio, Környe, Intercisa, Gorsium, Tamási, Dunaföldvár) extending south to Szekszárd (near Alisca) and as far west as Savaria. Distinctive elements are the bronze or gilded silver knobbed bow-brooches with chip-carved spiral decoration, armrings and polyhedral earrings. Again finds point to an apparent relationship with former Roman settlements and forts. At Aquincum there was even a hoard datable to 526 buried 308