Alba Regia. Annales Musei Stephani Regis. – Alba Regia. Az István Király Múzeum Évkönyve. 25. – Szent István Király Múzeum közleményei: C sorozat (1995)

Tanulmányok – Abhandlungen - Christie, N.: The Survival of Roman Settlement alog the Middle Danube: Pannonia from The tenth Century A. D. p. 303–319. t. XX–XXIII.

Quadic incursions. Much work can be attributed to the reign of Valentinian I (364-375) on the basis of stamped tiles and a pair of building inscriptions of 371-372 relating to burgi or watchtowers at Visegrád and Esztergom. The focus of activity was the Danube Bend (NE Valeria) between Brigetio and Aquincum, which was reinforced with с 70 burgi, most of dimensions 10 xlO m or 16 x 16m (SOPRONI 1978,1985: 11-12, JOHNSON 1983, 180-188). Some burgi lay over the Danube: construction of one contributed to the Quadic and Sarmatian invasion of 374, which resulted in widespread devastation in Pannónia, reported by Ammianus Marcellinus (XXX, 5-6) and reflected in numerous coin hoards as well as destruction levels in forts and towns. Ammianus calls Camuntum 'desolate and ruinous'; the walls of Sirmium and Savaria are shown in disrepair; and the position of the Danubian centres overall described as 'chronic'. The period 378-430 saw the progressive break-up of Roman control along the Middle Danube. A.D. 378 saw the disastrous Roman defeat at Adrianople at the hands of the Visigoths which swallowed up much of the Pannonian military. Subsequently hordes of Goths, Huns and Alans led by Alatheus and Saphrac rampaged through Pannónia, countered only by being granted lands on which to settle in 380. The usurper Magnus Maximus obtained much of the western Empire in the years up to 387 before Theodosius moved through Pannónia against him, using Pannonian federate troops as reinforcements. Contemporary sources speak of a province under siege with urban and rural decline, plundering federates and frequent new invasions. The year 395 is often quoted as one of major destruction by invading Marcomanni, Huns and Goths; in 401 Vandals pushed through, followed in 402 by Alaric's Visigoths who were pushed back out of Italy and fobbed off with the military command of Pannónia; in 405 Radagaisus' army marched across northern Pannónia and onto Gaul, prompting the flight of many Pannonians to Italy; the Visigoths pushed into Italy again in 408, leaving Pannónia clear, if only for a time, as the documented military command fo the Illyrican provinces held by Generidus suggests. But by 420-425 the Huns had established themselves in the Hungarian plain and controlled much of Pannónia. Between 427 and 433 the old province was finally ceded to the new conquerors - in line with the dissolution of much of the former Roman West in the period 410-440. By this time Rome relied on federate barbarians to hold her frontiers and guard her provinces, but she lacked the means to harness these powerful forces - in contrast with events in the Eastern Empire (VÁRADY 1969; Nagy 1971; MÓCSY 1974, 339350; cf. FERILL 1986, 83-85, 164-168). What was the physical impact of these disasters? A sole epigraphic guide is the epitaph of Amantius who died in Aquileia in 413 but who, it is argued, was previously bishop of Iovia from 381. The inscription relates how he had good relations with the 'two peoples' and their chiefs: this has been taken by many scholars to refer to the barbarian forces of Alatheus and Saphrac. Soproni extends the argument by identifying Amantius' presumed seat of Iovia with the inner fortification of Heténypuszta, suggesting thereby that these federates were stationed primarily in Valeria to aid in manning the eastern frontier (SOPRONI 1985, 86-93; contra MÓCSY 1974, 347 locating Iovia on the middle Drau - settlement of federates in this zone would have driven a dangerous wedge between Italy and the limes). Recent studies, chiefly excavations of the limes fortifications and of late Roman and 'Hun period' cemeteries have begun to disclose the broader spread of such federate peoples (we must recall that these comprised family groups not merely barbarian warriors). Along the Pannonian, Norican and even Raetian frontiers 'eingeglättete Keramik, wheel-thrown pottery featuring smoothed-in line decoration (vertical, horizontal, angled or criss-cross), makes an appearance in post-Valentinianic levels, sometimes in association with Roman manufactures and also with 'barbarian' handmade jars or beakers, and usually marking the last phase (in Pannónia) of'military' activity (SOPRONI 1985, 27-52; cf. Ubl 1982, 87-89 for Noricum; Kandier 1980, 91 for Carnuntum; Stadler 1987). On the Danube Bend Soproni has shown that the three castella of Pilismarót-Malompatak, Leányfalu-Móricz Zsigmond Strasse and BudakalászLuppa Csárda yielded large quantities of the smoothed-in ware, in the case of Pilismarót with two kilns indicating on-site manufacture. Significantly, burgi in the zone lack 'eingeglättete Keramik, implying the redundancy of such installations post-380 (SOPRONI 1875, 27-43). Elsewhere there is a clear reduction in the garrisons and in role of forts such as Pone Navata (Visegrád-Sibrik), where a large watchtower was constructed over the former west gate; similar fort shrinkages are noted for Carnuntum, Arrabona, Azaum and Cirpi, attesting a revision of frontier policy based on reduced limitanean troops (SOPRONI 1985, 44, 94-100, Barkóczi-Salamon 1984, 158-161). Some of these changes may be Valentinianic (e.g. Arrabona, Pona Navata), but most are post-380. Yet some fortresses, notably Brigetio, Ulcisia Castra, Aquincum and Intercisa, demonstrate no obvious reduction and instead persist well into the 5th century, with 'eingeglättete Keramik' signifying likely federate input. Variations in the ware do occur, but it is impossible and incautious to seek ethnic associations: Marcomanni, Quadi, Sarmatians, Huns, Alans and Goths are all attested as Pannonian federates and all may have adopted the ware and modified it to their decorative preferences. If the Romans had any say in the matter they must have tried to scatter the ethnic groups so as to counter possible combined actions. Within Valeria, excavations at Csákvár (south of Környe), Mőzs (east of Heténypuszta) and Intercisa have shown a persistence of late Roman cemeteries into the 5th 306