Alba Regia. Annales Musei Stephani Regis. – Alba Regia. Az István Király Múzeum Évkönyve. 25. – Szent István Király Múzeum közleményei: C sorozat (1995)

Tanulmányok – Abhandlungen - Christie, N.: The Survival of Roman Settlement alog the Middle Danube: Pannonia from The tenth Century A. D. p. 303–319. t. XX–XXIII.

own cultural identities (Contrast the minimal archaeology of the Ostrogoths in Italy with that of the Franks in Gaul: BIERBRAUER 1975; JAMES 1988). Yet as the Vita Severini shows, Roman life could endure in a battered frontier zone such as Noricum Ripense. But how far can this picture of Norican survival be replicated in the adjoining Roman provice of Pannónia? The province offers minimal documentary testimony for 5th century and later activity and we rely instead largely on the archaeological sources, comprising 'barbarian* graves, 'native' style burials, scattered settlement debris within towns and forts, and varied Christian artifacts ranging from churches to pilgrim flasks. How easily can these data be translated into a coherent image of Roman survival or settlement change? What impact did the many barbarian groups have on the province and its towns? And how easily can we define the ethnic appurtenance of finds after the late 4th century? Roman Pannónia, 11 B.C. -A.C. 364 Pannónia, occupying the western half of modern Hungary and the northern half of former Yugoslavian Croatia, was created a Roman province in 11 B.C. Romanisation was ensured by the creation of coloniae, municipia and civitates peregrinae in the interior, while the military presence early on came to be concentrated along the natural border of the province, the Danube. Fort construction began under Augustus, was multiplied under the Flavians and Trajan, and consolidated under Hadrian. Despite the network of roads constructed in the 1 st-2nd centuries across the province (particularly the SW-N 'Amber Road' via Savaria and Scarbantia), the Danube rapidly formed the prime traffic route, linking westwards with the German provinces and eastwards with the Black Sea; accordingly army bases alongside the river attracted the bulk of civilian settlement and trade and soon created an interlinked villa system. This had a striking effect on the interior, where urban centres were few and rural establishments remained relatively small and scattered. Partly this was also due to heavy forest cover although this normally would not have held back Roman rural exploitation; howerer, it can be noted that drainage operations to secure more extensive cultivable land are attested only from the later 3rd century when a rural 'boom' can finally be identified. Before this date villas lay close to the limes, and, relying on Danubian traffic, were not geared to produce an agricultural surplus; farms otherwise cluster around lake Fertő (Nausiedler See) in NW Pannónia and north of lake Balaton (MÓCSY 1974, 31-175; Barkóczi 1980, 85ff; Pannonian villas: THOMAS 1964; Bíró 1974, 47-52). The weakness of the limes was revealed in invasions by Marcomanni, Quadi and lazyges between 169-180, marking a first phase of destruction in Pannónia and a first phase of settlement of barbarian groups on Pannonian soil (MÓCSY 1974, 183-194). Whilst prosperity and order was restored under Septimius Severus, the Danubian or Illyrican soldiery took on a leading role in the ensuing crises of the 3rd century, as Goths and Sarmatians frequently broke through the limes and the armies elected usurpers to the throne; yet despite attested invasions, notably in 258-260, Pannónia emerged relatively unscathed (MÓCSY 1974, 200-208; destructions at Gorsium: FlTZ 1980, 14-18). One result of the turmoil was the imperial confiscation of the estates of killed or exiled members of the rebellious aristocracy - M ó с s y argues that after с. 300 this network of royal villas came to dominate the rural landscape (238-243; 1976). Campaigns against the Marcomanni and Sarmatians continued into the early 4th century, resulting perhaps in territorial control of Sarmatia by с 330 and the likely erection of the extensive earthwork system known as the Devil's Dyke; certainly it saw the installation of troops across the Danube and the settlement of further barbarian bands on Roman soil. Restructuring of the limes, the army and of the province (whereby northern Pannónia became Pannónia Prima and Valeria, and southern Pannónia was formed into Savia and Pannónia Secunda, with governors at Savaria, Sopianae, Siscia and Sirmium respectively) prompted renewed urban growth, witnessed chiefly in the construction of palaces at Savaria, Sirmium and Gorsium (renamed-Herculia) (MÓCSY 1974, 313-315; Tóth 1973; FlTZ 1980, 20; Póczy 1980, 254-269), and in the fortification of towns such as Sirmium, SCarbantia, Gorsium and Bassiana (MÓCSY 1974, 311-312; JOHNSON 1983, 121-123; Fitz 1987, 179, 183) (fig.l; pls.1-3). The adoption of Christianity had a fairly rapid impact on Pannónia. Early on in fact Jews and Christians are attested as settlers or merchants along the Danube, notably at Intercisa; Christians were martyred under Diocletian, the most famous being St. Quirinus, bishop of Siscia who was executed at Savaria in 303; while at Brigetio a tile inscription speaks of other martyrs (See Tóth 1973, 118-124; Thomas 1982, 256-262). After 313 bishoprics are documented at Singidunum, Mursa, Sirmium, Siscia and Cibalae, yet we lack direct evidence for more northerly sees: most probably, however, bishops sat at Savaria, Scarbantia, Gorsium, Sopianae and Aquincum (MÓCSY 1974, 323-336). A significant factor was the Pannonian adherence to the Arian creed, primarily in the years 340-360 and particularly in Pannónia Secunda. Although officially condemned in 378 Arianism will not have been wholly removed, and whilst its survival cannot be traced architecturally or archaeologically, events after A.D. 455 may have prompted a revival. Churches and Christian cemeteries are attested at most towns, notably Sopianae, where a number of mausolea are known, some with fine murals (Fiilep et al. 1988); and in Gorsium where one basilica overlay the former curia and another a 3rd century dwelling (FlTZ 1980, 20-22). In the course of the 4th century many larger villas were endowed with cult rooms, 304