Garam Éva szerk.: Between East and West - History of the peoples living in hungarian lands (Guide to the Archaeological Exhibition of the Hungarian National Museum; Budapest, 2005)

HALL 2 - The Neolithic and the Copper Age (6000-2800 B.C.) (Nándor Kalicz, Pál Raczky)

separate from the settlement, in which the position of the graves was a mirror of the intricate relationships in the community of the living, were first established at the close of the Neolithic. Copper Age society can primarily be studied from the burials in these large cemeteries, which symbolised social cohesion and permanence in the life of the mobile, pastoralist communities of the Carpathian Basin. Large burial mounds, called kurgans, can be regarded as special grave monuments; many of the kurgans dotting the Great Hungarian Plain were raised at the close of the Copper Age. This burial mode was introduced to South-East Europe by groups arriving from the Eastern European steppe. The deceased laid to rest under these artificial mounds were no doubt outstanding and high-ranking members of their community; the size of the mound, the amount of earth needed for its construction reflected both the power of the deceased and the extent of co-operation between community members. Kurgans were also the settings for regular gatherings and rituals. Another form of marking graves in the Copper Age was the erection of stone columns, so-called steles, beside or above the burial (Ózd-Center, Mezőcsát-Hörcsögös). The burials indicate that the strict burial rites remained unchanged for a long time. The custom of laying the deceased on its side in a contracted position can be traced to the Palaeolithic; this burial mode remained in use throughout prehistory. The severance of the deceased's skull and its separate burial as part of an individual ceremony (as, for example, at Mórágy and other sites) was a similarly ancient custom. The deceased were occasionally placed into the grave lying on their back. The deceased were most often simply laid into the grave pit; however, there is evidence for the use of rough-hewn coffins during the Neolithic (Vésztő-Mágor). Later, during the Copper Age, the dead were carefully wrapped into reed mats. Valuable furs, textiles and carpets were used as shrouds in burials under kurgans. The custom of cremation is first documented in the later Neolithic of the Carpathian Basin. This burial mode became more frequent at the close of the Copper Age, and was the dominant rite in the ensuing Bronze Age. The ashes were either scattered onto the floor of the grave pit or were placed into a vessel before burial (Öcsöd, Aszód-Papi földek). A unique assemblage of funerary urns modelled on the human body was brought to light at Ozd-Center (Fig. 28). One unusual feature of these urns is that they depict human figures with upheld arms, probably reflecting a ritual gesture, part of a series of "sacral" motions, whose survival can be traced from the Neolithic to the present. Empty graves, which did not contain any human remains are known from both the Neolithic and the Copper Age. These can be regarded as symbolic burials in instances when the body of the deceased could not be buried in accordance with the community's rites. The use of red ochre in the burial rite for painting the body of the deceased as part of the care for the dead was customary from the very beginning of prehistory. In some cases, red ochre was placed into a small vessel and deposited in the grave (Polgár). Patches of red ochre evoking the form of a human body have been observed in symbolic burials (AszódPapi földek, Polgár-Csőszhalom). The rich assortment of grave goods placed into burials is another indication of the care lavished on the deceased. Most of these were personal belongings, ornaments and weapons, as well as vessels containing food and beverages. The position of the ornaments in Neolithic and Copper Age burials indicate that the deceased were laid to rest in some sort of ceremonial garb. In addition to personal ornaments and everyday artefacts, grave goods sometimes included unusual vessels depicting fanciful half-human, half-animal creatures, which undoubtedly had a symbolic significance. In some cases, the vessels were intentionally broken before their deposition in the grave, no doubt as part of the strict burial ritual.