Mária T. Biró: The Bone Objects of the Roman Collection. (Catalogi Musei Nationalis Hungarici. Seria Archeologica 2; Budapest, 1994)
INTRODUCTION - 3. Theoretical aspects of determining bone carving workshops
identical demands. Roman customs, way of life, and the material externals of Romanization were very quickly adopted, moreover required by the provinces. The population of urbanized settlements represented the same taste, followed the same fashion, but this solvent demand had very different financial possibilities. In this situation the model employed was that the article much called for was produced from different raw materials and, depending from the character of the raw material, it could be sold at different prices. The article required by customers was also produced in the sam. form but from a more precious material for wealthy customers and from a cheaper material for the others. Archaeologists engaged in the classification of small objects (fibulae, belt mounts) according to types or researchers dealing with a certain raw material e. g. metal work or pottery are generally not confronted with this question. Although there existed a structure of productional systems to be explained only with the modern term of market research, namely, that the different workshops like potters, bronze-smiths, glass-ware makers and bone carvers tried to produce articles proved successful with their own devices and raw material. This market economy supposes of course a very well-organized co-operation of producers and merchants. Consequently, the success and significance of the merchant derived not only from the risk he took in penetrating to the most distant territories of the Empire — sometimes even preceding the occupying army —, but also from the way he could conform the production of workshops with market demands. The 4th century flourishing of the bone carving industry is just the result of the increasing commercial relations. We can prove that the same carving — an unique male head — has propped up in Lyon and in Haltern 11 of bone and at Tác made of clay. 12 The knife handle with the figure of the little capuchin monkey is also known made of bone, 13 jet 14 and glass 15 . The Medusa head composed in circle to be seen on the lyre made of bone is also known of glass. 16 Punched Late Roman combs are in my opinion the copies of metal combs. The mother goddess holding her child of Balkan origin has survived both in bone carving 17 and an almost identical bronze statuette is also known. 18 Some late antique types of bone hair-pins are copies of certain bronze hair-pins characteristic of the 3rd century in regions west of us. Types that were made of bone in our province in the 4th century, were made of bronze in the West in the 3th century. Unfortunately, there are no wood carvings to be compared with the above groups surviving. History of wear The wear of certain ages and peoples was determined by the fundamentals of society, by the customs inherited from ancient religious beliefs although losing their contents, people still clinging to them. The total system of these customs makes the wear of certain populations moreover groups of population different. It bears national characteristics within which an attempt was made to differentiate between social status as well. Roman Empire worked also in this respect as a modern state formation. There was an elite above nations the wear of which was differing from popular customs and similar all over the Empire. Romanization, as proved by Pannonian tombs 19 appeared first in the wear of men, and women insisted on their ancient costume for a longer time which can be explained not only by the different social role played by women but also by their traditional religious conservatism, the saving and transmittance of family and the beliefs protecting it. Romanization captured ever wider layers of society and gradually the wear of middle classes and of women began to bear the marks of Romanization. Throughout history dress has reflected the individual's social status, religious and national character together with his own economic background and financial possibilities. In the following we are making an attempt to consider these points of views in a reverse order, i. e. from individual to general, from local community to the expectations of the nation, the state. Wear has never been and even today it is not (contrary to appearance) a personal right of the individual; for a longer period and in essential question one is allowed to resist the expectations of the community. Or rather, one can do it only if he leaves the community and fundamentally breaks with his human relationships so far. It is not by chance, that even in our days certain garments, bracelets, rivets are accused instead of speaking about economic, social and generational tensions. In the last third of the Roman Empire, at the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century we can find masses of jewels and articles of everyday use made of bone. Behind the prosperity of bone industry economic decline and the impoverishment of masses of middle class population is hidden. Bone is in fact the popular raw material of Romanized middle layer of society; all the forms produced from bronze or precious metals could also be made of bone.
