Csányi Marietta et al. (szerk.): Tisicum - A Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Megyei Múzeumok Évkönyve 25. (Szolnok, 2016)

Közel-Kelet régészete - Ftaimi Tifanny: War and Conflict in Prehistoric Mesopotamia

Ftaimi Tiffany

War and Conflict in Prehistoric Mesopotamia

1. Introduction

War is a forced and violent solution for conflicting sides which want to divide many resources such as land, subsistence water, food, product, raw material, people and to reach different goals. In addition, these sides should be organized by leadership. It is very hard to define warfare in prehistoric Mesopotamia, we could not talk about armies, military organizations and soldiers like in the present days. The warfare in this period is a conflict or fight between two individuals or groups for instance. People fight in order to obtain a thing which the other does not have or when it was impossible to reach to a peaceful solution between each side. Warfare made its first appearance in Mesopotamia at the end of the fifth millennium and in the Uruk period which provides evidence for violent depictions, weapons and fortifications. In contrast with the Ubaid period, there is no captive, war scenes in the Ubaid are seals or weapon depictions as well1

Besides, we should deepen the sources and evidence of warfare to know more about warfare in Prehistoric Mesopotamia. Tracks of conquests and battles, also the administrative, religious and economical texts contribute to give more evidence of conflicts, but we do not have the above-mentioned sources in Prehistoric Mesopotamia. On the other hand, there are fortifications which dated to this period. I will present fortifications just in some sites for instance. In Tell Magzalia a defensive town wall was found on the site. This consisted of large limestone blocks, some of these blocks weighed a few hundred kilograms, this wall was 1,5 m or more higher. In the northern area of the settlement the remains of a tower were found as well.2 The site in Tell-es-Sawwan was surrounded by a ditch and in the Sa- marra phase (Tell-es-Sawwan III A) a rectangular buttressed fortification was built around the settlement.3 Kilometers north of Meskeneh/Emar/ Balis on the Euphrates in Syria was located the site of Habubakabira-Süd/ Tell Qannas dated to the Uruk period, which was surrounded by a fortification wall on three sides, on the fourth was the river, enclosing an area of at least 18 ha. The wall was 3 meters wide with rectangular towers and two gateways on the western side.4

Eight kilometers to the north of the site Habubakabira another Uruk settlement was located at Jebel Aruda which was supported by the defensible location of the hilltop.5

The other important sources of warfare are burials and anthropological examinations of skeletons. There are some skeletons on such sites, which might be evidence of conflicts. In Nemrik 9 one skeleton had a point in the

1 STEIN, Gil 1994.39.

2 YOFFEE, Norman-CLARK, Jeffery J. 1993. 34.; KUBBA, Shamil A.A 1987. 82.

3 KUBBA, Shamil A.A 1987.97.; MELLAART, James 1975.152.

4 STROMMENGER, Eva 1980. 35.; ALGAZE, Guillermo 1993. 25.; STEIN, Gil 1999.97.

5 ALGAZE, Guillermo 1993.25.

pelvic area, a second had a broken point next to his broken arm, the third had two points in his skull.6 At Tell Brak four mass graves were found. The human bones mostly belong to young adults ranging from 20 to 45 years. According to the excavators, these mass graves were a consequence of an organized conflict, Tell Brak dated to c. 3900-3600 BC.7 The two last indications evidences of war are weapons that were found in different sites and depictions of conflicts, battles and weapons. Both sources I will present and discuss in this article.

2. Weapons in Prehistoric Mesopotamia

(Fig.1) From the Epipaleolithic we have mace heads from Zawi Chemi Shanidar.8 Also, a small obsidian dagger was found at Tell Al-Mureybet, dated to the PPNA, with a limestone carved human skull in one structure which could be used for cult purpose.9 This dagger might have a ceremonial function like the flint dagger found in Catal Höyük, rather than war function.

In northern Mesopotamia, few mace heads were found in several sites. At Tell Magzalia dated to the Neolithic had two limestone mace heads and clay pellets for slings.10 11 The PPNA gives us more information about the mace heads from M’lefaat, Jarmo, Qermez Dere and Nemrik 9.11 The site of Jarmo had some of the mace heads made of marble.12 In Qermez Dere in addition to the mace heads, developed projectile points were found in this site, many of them with broken tops. The presence of these damaged points allows to speculate that it could be used in combats. On the other hand, it might have crashed with the settlement.13 Besides, in Nemrik 9 the biggest amount of Group X mace heads was found in the PPN, these Group X mace heads are artifacts were made of river pebbles, others were made of shale, sandstone, limestone, silicate and marble.14 The Proto-Hassuna period provides us with possible mace heads from Telul eth-Thalathat and Tell Sotto as well.15 Mace heads were made of shaped small stone which was fixed on a handle with string or ropes.16

The surface around the holes was rarely smoothed before polished and then drilled, which is the most difficult part of the production because

6 FERGUSON, R. Brian 2013.214.

7 OATES, Joan-McMAHON, Augusta 2013. http://www.tellbrak.mcdonald. cam.ac.uk/warfare.html Hozzáférés: 2015.03.05.

8 LeBLANC, Steve A. 2010.44.

9 MELLAART, James 1975.47.

10 YOFFEE, Norman-CLARK, Jeffery J. 1993.45.

11 MAZUROWSKI, Ryszard F. 1997.

12 MAZUROWSKI, Ryszard F. 1997.82.

13 FERGUSON, R. Brian 2013.214.

14 MAZUROWSKI, Ryszard F. 1997.82.

15 YOFFEE, Norman-CLARK, Jeffery J. 1993.

16 ROSENBERG, Danny 2012.204.

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