Alba Regia. Annales Musei Stephani Regis. – Alba Regia. Az István Király Múzeum Évkönyve. 21. 1981 – Szent István Király Múzeum közleményei: C sorozat (1984)
Bronzes romains figurés et appliqués et leurs problémes techniques. Actes du VIIe Colloque International sur les bronzes antiques - Zadoks-Josephus Jitta, A. N.: Roman bronze statuettes: another approach to dating. p. 9–11. t. I–IV.
Alba Regia, XXI, 1984 A. N. ZADOKS — JOSEPHUS JITTA ROMAN BRONZE STATUETTES: ANOTHER APPROACH TO DATING In discussing Roman bronze statuettes, all of us have to struggle with four main problems: origin, dating, spread and function. They are closely connected. Today, however, I will confine myself to the second one: dating. For I believe that we, our Dutch team, have found another approach to this thorny and haunting question. I want, however, to state expressly that this is meant to be added to existing methods, not to replace or supersede them. Several methods of dating have been proposed and often applied with success. There are in the first place objective criteria like men's or women's clothing (or lack of it), hairdress and such appurtenances. Unfortunately they are rare. Excavations give at most a terminus ante quern, the more so as bronze statuettes can be handed down as a precious heirloom from generation to generation. Still worse: official excavations in the Netherlands have yielded several bronzes. But the Isis of Valkenburg has been found in one of the latest castella (third quarter of the 3rd century AD), although of much earlier date (ZADOKS e.a. 1969, 60—63). The Mercurius of Dalfsen, another important find —as you will see later on —comes from a refuse heap in a 4th-century AD layer (ibid.). Bronzes of various dates—including an Umbro-Sabellian one —came to light in a settlement of the 2nd to 4th centuries AD without any stratigraphical precision (Zadoks 1976, 96—98, Fig. 17—20). There is only one fortunate exception which I will mention later on. Our esteemed colleague Menzel (1964, 11) mentions three methods: starting from bronzes firmly dated by their find-spot in relation to an historical event, examining find-complexes indicating a terminus post quem non, stylistic analysis in comparison with Greek and Roman statuary. The only exactly dated historical event in the Netherlands is the rebellion of 69/70 AD which caused the destruction by fire of several castella. But unfortunately no statuettes have been found immediately beneath or on top of the fire layers. Neither are there any find-complexes. Even the many statuettes from the northern terps can hardly be considered as such. They are isolated finds from various terps when these were dug away in view of the fertile earth they consisted of, not for archaeological purposes; therefore no stratigraphical date are known. Stylistic criteria are to be handled with utmost care, as it is difficult to distinguish between intentional and unwitting stylization or even mere clumsiness. Only the proportions of the figures follow more or less closely the general trend of Roman art : the sturdy figures of the Early Empire, the elegant and svelte ones of the 2nd century, the extremely muscular bodies of the early and the thick-set ones of the later 3rd century AD. A certain time-lag on one hand, a certain tenacity of tradition on the other must, however, be taken into account. Too often motif and style are confused. Motifs may derive more or less indirectly from classical examples, the style inexorably evolves and changes. Pheidias has created once and for all the outward appearance of seated semi-nude Zeus and of standing Athena in full panoply, but not every seated Jupiter or standing Minerva is a direct derivation from these classical examples. Nor does every nude male figure seated in a relaxed position derive directly from Lysippos. Each generation of artists treated these traditional motifs in their own way. There were to be many intermediate versions before the western provinces were reached. Not one of the provincial bronze casters, artisans more than artists, will have known their Greek predecessors even by name. This is the more valid for their provincial clients. Exceptional cases are presented, however, by Greek and Hellenistic statues on public display in Rome. AH the same the outward appearance of all deities was fixed from classical times onward and was generally known, just as we know the outward appearance of Santa Claus and recognize him whether he is represented thin or fat, tall or short, with long or short beard, naturalistic of stylized. • 9
